Timeline of Events

SYRIAN UPRISING

Syrian uprising Inteviewees Literature Key:
×

Timeline Introduction

About the timeline:

This timeline intrigues you to rethink the impact of climate change on the Syrian conflict. It highlights events in Syria's history demonstrating the interplay of different factors related to climate change, scarcity and conflict.

By scanning the timeline of events horizontally and vertically, you will be able to connect the dots and create a comprehensive perspective about the cause of agricultural deterioration and its impact on the conflict.

Navigating the timeline:

View additional reference materials:

×

Reference List

Ababsa, M., n.d. Privatisation in Syria: State Farms and the Case of the Euphrates Project. p.23.

Abbara, A., Zakieh, O., Rayes, D., Collin, S.M., Almhawish, N., Sullivan, R., Aladhan, I., Tarnas, M., Whalen-Browne, M., Omar, M., Tarakji, A. and Karah, N., 2021. Weaponizing water as an instrument of war in Syria: Impact on diarrhoeal disease in Idlib and Aleppo governorates, 2011–2019. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 108, pp.202–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2021.05.030.

Analysis and Strategic Study Organization, 2021. WHAT'S THE STORY BEHIND THE ARAB BELT IN AL-JAZEERA (AL-HASAKAH GOVERNORATE)? [online] Available at: <https://www.asocenter.org/node/786> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Anon 2021. Lake Assad. [online] placeandsee.com. Available at: <https://placeandsee.com/wiki/lake-assad> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Bernadaux, C., 2020. Syria's New Economic Overlords: an Obstacle to Agricultural Reconstruction? The Cases of Hama and Deir-Ez-Zor. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencespo.fr/kuwait-program/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CHLOE-BERNADAUX-POLITICAL-ECONOMY-CLASS.pdf> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Bilgen, A., 2020. Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP): A qualitative review of the literature. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 47, pp.652–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2018.1549978.

Briscoe, I., Janssen, F. and Smits, R., 2012. Stability and economic recovery after Assad: key steps for Syria's post-conflict transition. p.59.

Britannica, 2021. Euphrates Dam | dam, Syria | Britannica. [online] Available at: <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Euphrates-Dam> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Britannica, 2021. Hafez al-Assad | Biography, Facts, Religion, & Son | Britannica. [online] Available at: <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hafiz-al-Assad> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Climate-Diplomacy, 2021. Turkey, Syria and Iraq: Conflict over the Euphrates-Tigris | Climate-Diplomacy. [online] Available at: <https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/turkey-syria-and-iraq-conflict-over-euphrates-tigris> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Daher, J., 2018. The political economic context of Syria's reconstruction: a prospective in light of a legacy of unequal development. p.25.

Daoudy, M., 2020a. The Origins of the Syrian Conflict: Climate Change and Human Security. Cambridge University Press.

Daoudy, M., 2020b. Water weaponization in the Syrian conflict: strategies of domination and cooperation. International Affairs, 96(5), pp.1347–1366. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaa131.

Freedom House, 1999. Freedom in the World 1999 - Syria. [online] Refworld. Available at: <https://www.refworld.org/docid/5278c6d75.html> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Gamal El Din Nasser, S., 2017. Evolution through Revolution? The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood and the Syrian Uprising. [online] Available at: <https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/20244/1/Sumaya%20Nasser%20PHD.pdf> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Ganoulis, J. and Fried, J., 2018. Transboundary hydro-governance: from conflict to shared management. 1st edition ed. New York, NY: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Gelfand, D.E., 2013. Syria. ABDO Publishing Company.

Geography, L.E.A.E., Middle East, 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.

Gleick, P.H., 2014. Water, drought, climate change, and conflict in Syria. Weather, Climate, and Society, 6(3), pp.331-340.

Harper, A., 2008. Iraq's refugees: ignored and unwanted. 90(869), p.22.

Ismael, Q., 2016. The Hamah Massacre - February 1982 | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/hamah-massacre-february-1982.html> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Ismael, T.Y., 2017. The International Relations of the Middle East in the 21st Century: Patterns of Continuity and Change. Routledge.

Kankal, M., Nacar, S. and Uzlu, E., 2016. Status of hydropower and water resources in the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) of Turkey. Energy Reports, 2, pp.123–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2016.05.003.

Kelley, C.P., Mohtadi, S., Cane, M.A., Seager, R. and Kushnir, Y., 2015. Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(11), pp.3241–3246. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421533112.

Miranda, A. de, 2014. Water-harvesting Tradition in Syrian Steppe. Procedia Engineering, 89, pp.1522–1528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.11.446.

Mohammed, S.A., Alkerdi, A., Nagy, J. and Harsányi, E., 2020. Syrian crisis repercussions on the agricultural sector: Case study of wheat, cotton and olives. Regional Science Policy & Practice, 12(3), pp.519–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12222.

New Agriculturist, 2002. New Agriculturist: Country profile - Syria. [online] Available at: <http://www.new-ag.info/en/country/profile.php?a=864> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Owen, W.F., 1980. Land tenure in the Euphrates basin. [online] The Department. Available at: <https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Syria_Agricultural_Sector_Assessment_Hum/qREe6R7noA8C?hl=en&gbpv=0>.

Rabo, A., 2019. Water, land and politics in the Raqqa province. A contemporary case study. Levant, 51(2), pp.219–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/00758914.2020.1841957.

Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2021. From Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [online] Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Available at: <https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey-nato-together-for-peace-and-security-since60-years.en.mfa> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Rosner, K., 2016. Water-and-Electric-Power-in-Iraq-and-Syria-2016.pdf. [online] Available at: <https://www.strausscenter.org/wp-content/uploads/Water-and-Electric-Power-in-Iraq-and-Syria-2016.pdf> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Selby, J., Dahi, O.S., Fröhlich, C. and Hulme, M., 2017. Climate change and the Syrian civil war revisited. Political Geography, 60, pp.232-244.

THE WORLD BANK, 2021. Syrian Arab Republic | Data. [online] Available at: <https://data.worldbank.org/country/SY> [Accessed 16 Aug. 2021].

UN-ESCWA and BGR, 2013. Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia. [online] Available at: <https://waterinventory.org/sites/waterinventory.org/files/chapters/Chapter-02-Shared-Tribiutaries-of-the-Euphrates-River-web_0.pdf> [Accessed 15 Aug. 2021].

Worldometer, 2021. Syria Population (2021) - Worldometer. [online] Available at: <https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/syria-population/> [Accessed 16 Aug. 2021].
1961 1957 1956 1955 1954 1953 1952 1951 1949 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2012 1958 1959 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Less rain in Syrian Badieh& few wells Crop failure No wellsFarming prohibited Water shortage Digging wells illegally Watershortage Sufficient water Internal migration from the village to the city (lack of services in the village) From the cityto the village(better services in the village) Water shortageWatermelon crop failure No rain, dry rivers dry wells Major drought Cotton cultivationprohibited Decision number 83 As a result of decision 83 Syrian Presidents office and peasants uprise took place in the village of Disbi Afnan. Tishrin Dam completed in Syria. Complain from Iraq regarding the reduction of Euphrates' flowbecause of Tabqa Dam. The Southeastern Anatolia Project GAP project in Turkeyconstruction of 22 dams & 19 hydroelectric power plants. State-led ‘socialist’ economy and co-optation of the business class. ‘First steps towards liberalization of the economic sphere.’ ‘New rules allowed private domestic and foreign investment.’ Early 1990s encouraged privatesector development. ‘Drop in oil prices, caused a near-collapse of Syria’s state-centred economy.’ Golan Heights occupied by Israel. Construction of Tabqa damthe largest dam in Syria. Unilateral irrigation plans altering the flows of the rivers & political tensions starts between Turkey, Syria & Iraq. ‘Turkey committed to release 500 m³/s water to Syria, Syria committed to put an end to its support to the PKK. Turkey's refusal to sign the 1997 UN Water Convention. ‘Joint Communiqué between Syria & Turkey. The communiqué did not lead to any concrete actions’ Syria & Turkey build a dam on the sharedOrontes river in the province of Hatay. Bashar al-Assad president of Syria. Implementation of neoliberal policiesextensive privatization, liberalization & a reduction of subsidies on many products and services. Despite GDP growing, the only benefitted a small stratum of the economic elite. Oil production 527,000 b/d. ‘“social market economy” was adopted as a neweconomic strategy.’ Syria became a net oil importer. Oil production declined 379,000 b/d. The construction of Taqba dam led to the evacuation of 60,000 inhabitants from 43 villages submerged by the reservoir. Military coupbrought Socialist Ba'ath partyto power. Muslim Brotherhood uprising against the government. Al Hafez Al Asad became the president of Syria(24)Implements policies to increase agricultural yields. Drought Drought Drought Self-sufficient in wheat production. The driest Hydroelectric power plant on Tabqa dam. ‘Pasturelands were ruined & vast quantities of sheep and camels werelost in the massive drought.’ ‘Many were forced to seek employment in the urban centres. Some did not return to their pastoral lifestyle after the drought was over.As a result of massive drought.’ Influx of Iraqi refugees to Syria. Hama riot against Al Ba'ath Party. Hama massacre. Karakaya Dam in Turkey put into service. Iraq invasion of Kuwait. Atatürk Dam in Turkeybegan filling. Interrupted the flow of theEuphrates for month. Construction of Keban damin Turkey. Keban dam put into servicein Turkey. Construction of Karkamış Dam completed Construction of Birecik Dam completed Price of wheat & rice doubled ‘1960 onwards, the traditional water-harvesting devices stopped working because of technological progress, and modern hydraulic works replaced them.’ 21% of GDP is the contribution of agriculture. 14.1% of GDP is the contribution of agriculture. 'Irrigated cotton wasintroduced along theEuphrates, Balikh & Khabour rivers. In the steppe, mechanizedrain-fed wheat and barley cultivation was launched.' ‘The city itself grew through the expansion of the agricultural sector. Raqqa, like other towns of the north-east, attracted migrants from other regions.’ ‘Early 1950s, winter rains were plentiful and harvests were very good.’ ‘Early 1960s, new national policies were formulated. A big & reform limited the size of land holdings in Syria and in the Jazira& was taken from the sheikhs and given to their fellow tribesmen.’ Turkey become member of NATO. Baath Dam completed in Syria. GDP: 857,704,431.686 GDP: 2.14 b/d GDP: 13.062 b/d GDP: 12.309 b/d GDP: 19.326 b/d GDP: 60.04 b/d. ‘Hasakah became the most important agricultural region in syria, producing around 40% of the country’s wheat and cotton supply.’ The salinity level of the Jallab river was high when it entered syria, due to Syrian & Turkish irrigation activities. Khabour river dryness as a result of intensive irrigated agriculture in syria & Turkey. 3,413,331 4,573,512 6,350,541 8,930,774 12,446,171 16,410,848 21,362,529 Rural to urban migration. Water shortage. Capture ofTishrin,Tabqa & Althawra dam. Removal of fuel subsidies. Removal of fertilizer subsidies. land was parcelled out in shares of 3 ha for irrigated land and 8 ha for non-irrigated land Turkey Turkey Arab Belt: Some agricultural lands in Al-Hasakahgranted to Arab peasants from Raqqa & Aleppo after their lands were submerged by the Assad Lake. Tabqa dam completed in Syria & Lake Assad, began filling. ECONOMY POLITICSGEOPOLITICS HYDRO-POLITICS AGRICULTURALACTIVITIES REGULATIONS DROUGHT WATER SHORTAGE MIGRATION POPULATION b/d:billion dollar 2011